 |
Pietro
de' Crescenzi, Liber
ruralium commodorum
(The Book of Rural Benefits), 1304-1309
|
The Medieval Almanac
Life on the Farm
By Barunin Gisela
vom Kreuzbach
Gisela.vomKreuzbach@gmail.com
Farming
came to Europe about 11,000 years ago, apparently in two waves from the Middle
East where the science of deliberate agriculture originated. It allowed the
hunter-gatherer peoples who populated the vast European Continent to settle
into permanent stable holdings, villages and, eventually, cities.
In
our period of study agriculture moved from being a matter of mere subsistence
to become the primary economic engine and source of wealth for all of Europe.
Everyone, from the meanest serf to the pope danced to the rhythm of the
seasons.
Coaxing
grain, fruit and vegetable from the thin layer of top soil in the Middle Ages
and Renaissance was a highly labor intensive prospect. At certain times of the
year nearly everyone, save the vicar and the lord of the manor himself, was
involved in producing the best possible harvest. Most of the year, however,
those we would call peasants and serfs worked the land.
Peasants
generally contracted with the local lord for protection and support and farmed
land they might own outright or they owned the rights to in exchange for labor
in the lord’s fields and pastures. It could not legally be taken from them
without good reason based on criminal act or abandonment on the part of the
farmer.
Serfs,
on the other hand, were bound to the local noble by debt of owed labor, rent
and levies. Debt that was, at times, deliberately structured to keep
individuals and their families indentured. Land ownership might be hereditary
but so was debt.
Through
the early part of the Middle Ages in Europe, most land was assigned to manors
of various sizes, generally about 600 acres according to several sources. After
the Norman Conquest there were more than 9,000 such manors in England. Nobles
held at least one, often more, manors.
The
part of Europe that is now Austria, Switzerland, Germany, France and the Low
Countries, had a population that fluctuated between 10 and 15 million from 1 CE
to 600 CE. That more than doubled to 36 million by the 13th Century.
Some attribute the faster growth to the introduction of new, more effective
plow designs that allowed more land to be brought to till. Just to give you an
idea of how sparsely populated the area was at that time, the same area now
supports 250 million.
Farm
yield of the manors was vital to keep the staff and families of the castle,
hall and village fed. Sale of surplus yield and finished goods became
increasingly important as the economies grew. As weather improved, so did
productivity. As the economy and trade strengthened and the population
increased, so did the need for cleared arable land.
More
land and more productivity required more labor. Serfs who owed debt obligations
were cheaper than hired workers or freeholders who sold their goods. It
benefitted the nobility to make it harder to remain a freeholder … a free land
owner and to drive more of the local population into servitude.
“At
the beginning of this period (900 -1200 CE) the main source of wealth was
agriculture, and it remained so throughout. Lords had established their control
over it in much the same way that they had established their rights over men,
amalgamating rights, which had been theirs on their own estates with public
rights and then extending them over as many people as possible within their
lordships. The control of local justice and of obligations to forced labour,
the offer of ‘protection’ and levying of taxation, were the essential means by
which free peasants were reduced to servitude, hereditarily bound to their
tenements and liable to arbitrary levies and labour services. Poor harvests and
flight from marauders were both factors which could lead a freeman to surrender
his liberty, but it was likely that the pressure came from above and was not
willingly conceded from below, because the most rapid subjection of the
peasantry came not in the tenth century, at the time of greatest instability,
but rather in the eleventh when harvests were improving and lords looking for
the means to build in stone rather than wood.” (Holmes, 1988)
This
author illustrates his point by noting that 80% of donations received by the
Chartres cathedral between 940 and 980 were from peasant freeholders. That
figure dropped steadily but slowing until the time of the Conquest when it held
at about 38% for 30 years. Between 1090 and 1130, however, only 8% of donations
to the cathedral were given by free peasants.
The
eleventh-century bishop of Laon called peasants the class that "owns
nothing that it does not get by its own labor and provided the rest of the
population with money, clothing, and food ... Not one free man could live
without them" (Gies & Gies, 1978)
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| winnowing. |
So
they worked. All of them. From toddling child to elderly grandmother, each
worked at tasks suited to their strengths and limitations.
Men
being, in general, physically stronger than women and unhampered by pregnancy
and small-child care, worked in the fields and forests, clearing land, plowing,
setting fences, building structures, bringing in harvests, shearing sheep and
butchering livestock.
Women
generally kept the home and village, tending livestock and gardens, carding, spinning
and weaving wool, making ale, cheese and butter. At times women helped in the
fields as well, sowing, helping with the harvest scything, tying, and
winnowing.
Children
began to work nearly as soon as they could walk. Very young children would be
stationed in gardens (tofts) and fields (crofts) after planting and sowing to
scare birds away. As they aged, they’d be tasked with climbing to the top of
trees to get the fruit adults could not reach, feeding livestock, tending herds
at pasture, weeding fields and garden plots, gathering wood and helping with
the harvests.
Life
was work. Work was life. There was little distinction made for most people. All
danced to the rhythm of the seasons.
Even
though land was usually allotted to individual families based on seniority,
type and amount of work as well as need, fields were most often worked
communally allowing for larger plots … usually ten times as long as they were
wide which made tasks such as plowing …. And turning a team of oxen … a much
easier endeavor.
Oxen,
some more specialized tools and some larger equipment were generally owned by
the entire village and sometimes were stored in the church.
Fields
were laid out around the village in such a way to contain both good and poor
soil in each. With crop rotation, this gave a greater chance of good harvests
each year.
A three-field system of crop rotation was used
during much of our period in which a plot was sown two years in a row and let
fallow the third to allow the soil to recover. Crops were rotated as it was
long-noticed that if wheat or rye (Wintercorn) followed peas, beans or oats
(Springcorn) the yield was greater. They didn’t understand the cause but today
we know those crops are nitrogen-fixing crops that replenish the nutrients used
by the wheat. During the fallow year fields were fertilized with livestock dung
and marled, a process of spreading clay for the carbonate of lime.
Using
the map of Willen to illustrate, this
year the Middle Field might be sown with winter wheat, the South Field with
oats and the North Field left fallow. Next year the North Field would be sown
with wheat, the Middle with Oats and the South left fallow.
What
type of crops were planted or livestock kept and the timing of agrarian activities
varied from one region to another based on everything from local traditions and
preferences to availability of certain plant and animal varieties to climate
based on elevation or latitude.
Wheat,
rye, barley and oats were fairly ubiquitous as were peas, cabbage, beans and
turnips. Eggplant came from Persia and generally stayed in the warmer climes.
Cattle were widely raised for meat and, in Europe, for milk.
Sheep
were just as widely tended for wool and meat but in the Near and Middle East
sheep and goat’s milk was preferred. Europeans have the genetic ability to
digest cow’s milk into adulthood. Those of Middle Eastern decent tend to lack
the ability and use the much easier digested fermented goats milk.
Barley
was largely used for beer. Rye and wheat for flour and as a cash crop. Hay and
oats generally went for animal feed, though, of course, not always and not
everywhere. A quip from period says, "Oats, food for horses in England,
but men in Scotland," to which the reply was, "Aye, and where do you
find better horses or finer men?"
A
minimum of 36 bushels of wheat (the yield of four acres in an average year) was
required to support a peasant’s family for the year. An acre produced about 7 -
8.5 bushels of grain per acre in Medieval Europe where modern farming methods,
on the same land, yield four times that at 42.5 bushels.
That
yield was only about double the amount of seed used, 4 bu per acre. Barley
would bring about 20 bushels per acre … leaving about 15 after taxes and seed
were pulled … from only 2 bu of seed. Oates yielded a 300 to nearly 400 percent
increase giving 10 -11.5 bu an acre from 3 bu of seed.
Peas,
an important component in the medieval diet across Europe as a protein source,
gave 8.5 - 10 bu per acre from 3 bu of seed.
“Because
of relatively small yields, medieval agriculture was highly sensitive to
adverse weather conditions, both summer droughts, winter freezes, and periods
of overabundance of rain. This meant that a certain level of crop variety was
necessary as insurance against the possible destruction of an important
staple.” (Glick, Livesey and Wallis, 2005)
What
did they grow?
“Sour
and sweet cherries of all kinds, both cultivated and wild, grow in such great
quantity that sometimes it happens that more than sisty carts of them are in
one day brought through the gates of the city, and they are available for sale
in the city at any hour from mid-May until almost mid-July. Plums, too, white,
yellow, dark, damascene, likewise in almost infinite quantity, are distributed
ripe from shortly before the Kalends of July until the month of October.
“At
the same time plums begin to appear, pears, summer apples, blackberries and the
figs named ‘flowers’ appear in abundance; then follow cultivated filberts;
afterwards the cornel-berries, particularly appropriate for ladies; also
jujubes and peaches amazingly abundant; likewise, figs and grapes of various
kinds; also almonds, although few of them; wild filberts, nuts in unbelievable
quantity, which all citizens who like them enjoy all the year round after all
meals. Nuts can also be mixed, ground, with eggs and cheese and pepper to stuff
meat in winter. Also an oil is obtained from them which is liberally consumed
among us. Then again, winter pears and apples and crabapples grow, all of which
abundantly supply our citizens through the winter and beyond. Also pomegranates
appear, most useful to the sick. Grapes of many kinds are abundant, and they
appear ripe about the middle of July and are available for sale until the
Kalends of December or thereabouts.”
Bonvesin
della Riva, On the marvels of the City of
Milan. From the Latin. [1288]
(Lopez
& Raymond 1995)
His
wonderfully descriptive PR letter aside … crops generally produced in most of
Europe in our period were:
Peas,
lentils, fava beans, cabbage, onions, shallots, leeks, garlic, herbs, carrots,
beets, turnips, rutabagas, parsnips, greens, parsley, chickpeas, navy beans, wheat,
rye, barley, oates, millet, flax, hemp (for ~fiber~), apples, pears, cherries
(sweet and sour), olives, figs, quinces, mulberries, walnuts, chestnuts, (Warmer
climes had almonds, peaches, plums and in Italy and Spain, citrus)
Sheep,
cattle, goats, chickens, pigs, horses, oxen
After
the Muslim conquests in the East during the 8th and 9th
Centuries techniques and cultivars from the Subcontinent such as rice, sugar
cane, citrus fruits and cotton were appropriated throughout the Islamic world.
Crops cultivated in monsoon conditions, in Europe had to be irrigated.
Something the Arabs called “Indian Farming” (filaha hindiyya). As these
techniques and crops spread through Persia toward Europe, they picked up
Persian cultivars … eggplant and artichokes.
And
so it continued until today, new technologies, and new varieties
increasing our access to food and our enjoyment of it.
14th
C English Poem
Januar: By
thys fyre I warme my my handys
Februar: And with my spade I delfe my landys
Marche: Here I sette thynge to sprynge
Aprile: And here I here the fowlis synge
Maii: I am as lught as burdie in bowe
Junii: And I wede my corn well mow
Julii: With my sythe my mede I mowe
Auguste: And here I shere my corne full lowe
September: And with my flaylle I erne my brede
October: And here I sawe my whete so rede
November: At Martynesmasse I kylle my syne
December: And at Chritemasse I drynke redde wyne
Winter
JANUARY
Repairs to tools, buildings, fences, Some planting of early
vegetables such as peas and onions depending on locale, Weaving, Crafting new
tools, baskets, rope, nets, leather straps, Pruning Mature Trees, Clearing
ditches, cutting wood, breeding sows, spreading fertilizer, early lambing
FEBRUARY
Plowing in Southern lands, Planting, Fertilizing and
amending soil with chalk and lime, Repairs, Clearing new fields, Pruning fruit
trees and stalking vines, Lambing, Mending fences, Planting willows, Lambing,
Calving
Spring
MARCH
Spreading Manure, Plowing, Planting early vegetables
depending on locale, also flax and hemp, Sowing (scattering seeds in large
fields such as grains for fall harvest and hay), Harrowing, Calving, Pruning
Vines, Lady Day, March 25 marked the unofficial beginning of the new year for
many as this day was the mile marker for returning to the fields.
APRIL
Pruning Young Trees to encourage stronger more productive
growth, Weeding, Scaring Birds, Planting pulses (peas and beans), cabbages,
onions, carrots, parsnips, beets, leeks, turnips. Orchard Trees, Harrowing,
Household gardens would have been planted in this time with sage, basil, thyme,
rosemary, fennel, Parsely, dill, mint,chives, daisies, dandelion, wormwood,
nettle, primrose, rocket, spinach, lettuce, cress, borage, rocket. Weaning
calves, Dairy work comes into full swing, Farrowing piglets
MAY
Weeding, Scaring Birds, Planting New Trees, Gathering Early
crops such as cherries, strawberries, Digging Drainage Ditches, First plowing
of Fallow fields, Capturing new swarms of bees, Mark sheep, Plant garden
vegetables and pulses in cooler climes, Roof thatch repair begins
Summer
Wash and Shear sheep, Harvesting (two main harvests, hay, barley,
vetches, oats, peas, beans in late spring - early summer, wheat, rye and grapes
late summer. If a spring grain crop was planted then another grain harvest in
late fall), Weeding, Shearing Festsival
JULY
Shearing continues, Hay Mowing continues, Harvest of winter
crops continues, Plowing harvested fields and marled fallow fields under,
Gathering berries, Weeding, Harvesting flax and hemp, Washing, Carding and
Spinning the wool, Gathering Wood a nearly year-round task to ensure enough
fuel for winter as well as resources to craft tools, fences and repair buildings
AUGUST
Harvesting Grain (winter crop in cooler climes) and hay,
Tying sheaves and storing for threshing and winnowing later, Washing, Carding
and Spinning the wool, Plant turnips
SEPTEMBER
Harvesting grains (spring crop), Honey and wax, peas,
apples, pears, blackberries and grapes, Breeding cattle, Tying, Threshing,
Winnowing, Milling (The first record of a windmill in England was 1185 in Yorkshire.
Shortly afterwards, Pope Celestine III declared the air used by windmills was
owned by the church and so a tax must be paid to the church for their use.), Plow
fields for winter grain planting, Sow winter grain, Washing, Carding and
Spinning the wool, Pruning Fruit Trees, Harvest Festival, Sell excess livestock
OCTOBER
Last Plowing, Tilling, Harrowing, Sowing winter wheat, oats
and barley, Milling, Weaving, Carding and Spinning the Wool, Brewing, Drive
pigs to forage on Acorns and beechnuts, Harvesting Grapes and begin production
of wine and verjuice, Breed sheep.
"About nones on 2 Oct., 1270, Amice daughter of Robert Belamy of
Staploe and Sibyl Bonchevaler were carrying a tub full of grout between them in
the brewhouse of Lady Juliana de Beauchamp ... intending to empty it in a
boiling leaden vat, when Amice slipped and fell into the vat and the tub upon
her ... the household came and found her scalded almost to death. A chaplain
came and Amice had the rites of the church and died by misadventure about prime
the next day" (Amt, 1993, p. 189).
NOVEMBER
Butchering begins (Nov. 11, St. Martins Day),
Salting/Smoking Preserving, Weaving, Gathering Willow and Reed for weaving
baskets, Gathering Acorns for pigs feed, Gathering fuel wood for winter,
Threshing and Winnowing, ideally suited to rainy and cold days, comes into full
swing.
DECEMBER
Butchering, Salting/Smoking Preserving, Weaving, Gathering
Willow and Reed for weaving baskets, Digging drainage ditches, Graves, Solstice
and Christmas Celebrations
Bibliography
Amt, E. (Ed.) (1993). Women's Lives in Medieval Europe. New York and London: Routledge.
Balter, M. (2011) Farming conquered Europe at Least Twice. Science Magazine 31May 2011
Gies, F. and Gies, J. (1978). Women in the Middle Ages. New York: Harper Perennial.
Glick, T., Livesey, S.J. & Wallis, F. (2005) Medieval Science, Technology And Medicine: An Encyclopedia. New York: Rutledge
Goldberg, P.J.P. (Ed.) (1995). Women in England c. 1275-1525. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press.
Hanawalt, B.A. (Ed.) (1986). Women and Work in Preindustrial Europe. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Hartman, R. (2001) The Medieval Agricultural Year, http://strangehorizons.com/2001/20010212/agriculture.shtml
Holmes, George (Ed.) (1988). The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Lopez, R.S. & Raymond, I.W. (1995). Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World: Illustrative Documents Translated with Introductions and Note. New York: Columbia University Press
Staples, A. (2011) The Medieval Farming Year. http://www.penultimateharn.com/history/medievalfarmingyear.html
